Language & Language Arts Articles

Cheat Sheet / Updated 09-30-2024

Writing a dissertation shouldn’t mean panicking. If you plan ahead and know how to structure your work, you’ll achieve fantastic results. And guess what? You might even enjoy yourself; writing a dissertation can be a highly rewarding experience. Follow this guide to producing the best possible dissertation.

Cheat Sheet / Updated 09-16-2024

Polish is a unique and immensely rewarding language to learn. This Cheat Sheet gives you a quick run-down of the Polish alphabet, Polish numbers, and handy Polish phrases to make you feel more confident speaking Polish in no time.

Cheat Sheet / Updated 07-28-2024

Transform your life experiences into a captivating memoir! Here’s a quick guide to get you started on capturing the essence of your story.

Article / Updated 05-30-2024

Knowing some common French greetings and good-byes will be indispensable when traveling in French-speaking countries. Saying hello and good-bye in French will quickly become second nature because you'll use them day in and day out with everyone you come across. In most French-speaking countries it's considered good manners to greet everyone. So, whether you're speaking to a clerk, a waiter, or just bumping into someone on the street, take the time to say a polite bonjour before you proceed. This also means that when step on the bus or train you should say a quick bonjour to anyone within hearing distance. The most common conversational ways to greet someone in French are: Salut. (Hello; Hi. [Informal]) Bonjour. (Hello; Good morning.) Bonsoir. (Good evening.) You might think that you can use good afternoon (bon après-midi) as a greeting the way you can in the United States, but in most French-speaking countries, bon après-midi should only be used to as a form of goodbye. Greeting with a cheek kiss Cheek kissing is another common type of greeting in most French-speaking countries. However, the rules for cheek kisses can be complicated matter. The rules change depending on the country you're in and even the region of the country. For example, in Belgium, it's customary to greet everyone in your generation or younger with one kiss, but anyone that's a generation or more older than you should be given three kiss (right cheek-left-then right again). In Paris, most people stick to a four-kiss rule, but in most of the rest of France, two kisses is the norm. If you think that's confusing, you're right. The good news is that when you meet someone for the first time, you can usually just shake hands. Then just watch how other people interact. Because it's such a common practice, you should quickly be able to determine what the standard is where you're staying. How are you? How's it going? Asking how someone is doing is a common greeting in the U.S. How many times a day do we hear or say these brief greetings at the beginning of our conversations? So many times, in fact, that half the time, we don't even pay attention. These pleasantries are common in French-speaking countries as well. The most common ways to ask how someone is doing are: Comment ça va? (How’s it going?) Comment vas-tu? (How are you? [Informal]) Comment allez-vous? (How are you? [Formal]) Ça va? (How’s it going? [Informal]) As you'd expect, when someone asks you how you're doing, there are many possible responses. Ça va bien. It’s going well.) Tout va bien. (Everything is going well.) Je vais bien, merci. (I’m fine, thank you.) Je vais très bien. (I’m very well.) Je ne vais pas très bien. (I’m not doing very well.) Je vais comme-ci, comme-ça. (I’m so-so.) Once you've said that you're fine, or good, or so-so, it is customary to ask how the other person is doing. You can do this easily by saying Et toi? (And you? [informal]) or Et vous? (And you? [formal]). Saying good-bye As many ways as there are to greet someone, you'll find plenty of ways say goodbye, as well. Au revoir. (Good-bye.) Salut. (Good-bye. [Informal]) À bientôt. (See you soon.) À tout de suite. (See you in a minute.) À plus tard. (See you later.) À la prochaine. (Until next time.) À demain. (See you tomorrow.) À la semaine prochaine. (See you next week.) À lundi. (See you on Monday.) Bonne journée! (Have a good day!) Bonne chance! (Good luck!) Bonne nuit. (Good night. Used only when someone is going to sleep or retiring for the evening.) Aside from a few exceptions, final consonants aren’t pronounced in French. Pronounce a final consonant only if it’s followed by a vowel.

Article / Updated 05-30-2024

The French indefinite article is the equivalent to a/an and some (but English often skips it). Do you ask about one thing, describe a couple of things that happened, and make plans for an outing that hasn’t yet been defined? If so, you’re an indefinite article kind of person, like the French! And as such, you should treat the article indéfini as the default article in French grammar. French Indefinite Articles French Article Usage in French English Equivalent Example un Before masculine singular nouns a/an un chat (a cat) une Before feminine singular nouns a/an une maison (a house) des Before masculine or feminine plural nouns some des enfants (some children) de, or d’ before nouns beginning with a vowel or a mute -h Instead of any indefinite article, after a negative verb no or not any pas d’ordinateur (no computer) Use the indefinite article when you talk about one or several individual things that you can count, as opposed to an entire category of things. Il y a un livre sur la table. (There is a book on the table.) Tu as mangé une banane. (You ate a/one banana.) Il a vu des lions au zoo. (He saw (some) lions at the zoo.) You also can use the indefinite articles un and une before an expression of quantity, like une tranche de (a slice of), un morceau de (a piece of), and un peu de (a little bit of). In a sentence with a negative verb, un, une, and des are replaced by de, even if the noun it introduces is plural. Here are some examples. Il n’y a pas de souris dans notre garage. (There is not a mouse in our garage.) Elle ne veut pas d’enfants. (She doesn’t want any children.) This rule has one exception. Don’t use de when the negative verb is être (to be). Just use the indefinite article as if the sentence was affirmative. Here are some examples: Cet animal n’est pas un chien. C’est un renard. (This animal is not a dog. It’s a fox.) — C’est une voiture rouge, n’est-ce pas? — Non ce n’est pas une voiture rouge! C’est une voiture noire. (— It’s a red car, right? — No, it’s not a red car! It’s a black car.) Choose between the definite article (le, la, l’, les) and the indefinite article (un, une, des, and de) to complete the sentences. Check a French-English dictionary if you need help with the vocabulary.

Article / Updated 05-30-2024

Proper English is important. The only problem with that statement is the definition of “proper.” Language has many levels of formality, all of which are “proper” at times and completely unsuitable at others. Many gradations of formality exist, but to make things easier, divide English into three large categories: “friendspeak” (the most casual), “conversational” (one step up), and “formal” (the equivalent of wearing your best business attire). Take a look at these examples: c u in 10 (friendspeak) There in ten minutes. (conversational) I will arrive in ten minutes. (formal) All three statements say the same thing in very different ways. Here’s the deal: Friendspeak breaks some rules of formal English on purpose, to show that people are comfortable with each other. Friendspeak shortens or drops words and often includes slang and references that only close friends understand. No one has to teach you this level of English. You learn it from your pals, or you create it yourself and teach it to your buddies. Conversational English sounds relaxed, but not too relaxed. It’s the language equivalent of jeans and a T-shirt. Conversational English is filled with contractions (I’m instead of I am, would’ve instead of would have, and so forth). Not many abbreviations appear in conversational English, but you may confidently include those that are well established and widely understood (etc., a.m., p.m., and the like). You may also see acronyms, which pluck the first letter from each word of a name (NATO for the North Atlantic Treaty Organization or AIDS for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, for example). Conversational English may drop some words and break a few rules. The example sentence for conversational English at the beginning of this article, for instance, has no subject or verb, a giant no-no in formal writing but perfectly acceptable at this level of language. Formal English is the pickiest location in Grammarland. When you speak or write in formal English, you follow every rule (including some you never heard of), avoid slang and abbreviations, and trot out your best vocabulary. Think about your audience when you’re selecting friendspeak, conversational English, or formal English. What impression are you trying to give? Let your goals guide you. Also consider the situation. At work you may rely on conversational English when you run into your boss at the coffee machine, but not when you’re submitting a quarterly report. At school, choosing conversational English is okay for a teacher-student chat in the cafeteria, but not for homework. More on situation and language appears in the next section, “Matching Message to Situation.” Can you identify levels of formality? Check out this example: EXAMPLE: Place these expressions in order of formality, from the most formal to the least. Note: Two expressions may tie. For example, your answer may be A, B and C — in which case expression A is the most formal and expressions B and C are on the same, more casual level. A. sketchy block B. That is a dangerous neighborhood. C. Where gangs rule. ANSWER: B, C, A. Expression B is the most formal because it follows all the conventions of English. Every word is in the dictionary, and the sentence is complete. Expression C, on the other hand, is an incomplete sentence and is therefore less formal. Also, in Expression C the verb rule has an unusual meaning. Your readers or listeners probably understand that gangs aren’t official authorities but instead wield a lot of unofficial power. The statement is more conversational than formal. Expression A employs slang (sketchy means “slightly dangerous”), so it’s closer to friendspeak than to formal English.

Article / Updated 05-30-2024

In many languages, you say the equivalent of “Ate the cookie?” to find out whether your friend gobbled up a treat. In English, you nearly always need a helping verb and a subject (the person or thing you’re talking about) to create a question: “Did you eat the cookie?” (The verbs to be and to have are the only exceptions.) Notice that the combo form (did eat) is different from the straight past tense (ate). Other question-creators, italicized in these examples, change the tense: “Will you eat my cookie?” or “Do you eat cookies?” (This last one suggests an ongoing action.) In nearly all questions, the subject follows the first (or only) verb. Practice questions Rewrite the statement so that it becomes a question. Add words or rearrange the sentence as needed. They noticed seven credit cards, each with a different name. You want the reward for recovering stolen property. Answers to practice questions Did they notice the seven credit cards, each with a different name? The helper did precedes the subject, they, in this question. Do you want the reward for recovering stolen property? In this question, you add do to the main verb, want, to land in question territory.

Article / Updated 05-30-2024

When you’re listening or reading, you probably note the difference between formal and informal language constantly — maybe unconsciously. Knowing levels of language, however, isn’t enough. You also need to decide what level of formality to employ when you’re speaking and writing. Before you choose, consider these factors: Your audience. If your message is going to a person with more power or higher status than you (an employee writing to a boss or a student to a teacher, for example), you should probably be more formal. If you’re speaking or writing to someone with less power or lower status than you, conversational English is fine. In a higher-to-lower situation, however, the person with more authority may wish to employ formal English in order to serve as a role model or to establish a professional atmosphere. When you’re dealing with peers, conversational English is a good bet. Only your closest friends rate — and understand — friendspeak. The situation. At the company picnic or in the cafeteria, most people opt for less formal speech. Similarly, at get-togethers with family and friends, formal language may sound stiff and unfriendly. When you’re in an official meeting with a client or teacher, however, formal English is safer. The format. When you’re speaking you have more leeway than when you’re writing. Why? Unless you’re reading prepared remarks, you probably can’t produce perfect sentences. Not many people can! The writing in texts, tweets, and instant messages tends to be in conversational English or, with your buddies, in friendspeak. Exceptions occur, though. A text to a client should be more formal than one to a friend, and journalists or officials often tweet in formal English. Email can go either way. Because it’s fast, the dropped or shortened forms of conversational English are generally acceptable, but if you think the reader expects you to honor tradition (the written equivalent of a curtsy or a hat-tip), go for formal English. Always employ formal English for business letters, school reports, and similar paper-based communication. Listen to those around you or read others’ work that appears in the same context you’re navigating. Unless you want to stand out, aim for the same level of formality you hear or see. Think about the audience, situation, and format. In the following example, decide whether the writing or speech is appropriate or inappropriate. Text from a department head to the CEO requesting a salary increase: greenlight $20K or I walk Inappropriate. Think about the power ladder here. The CEO is on the top rung, and the department head somewhere farther down. Even though texts tend to be informal, this one is about money. When you ask for money, be polite! To be polite in Grammarland is to use formal, correct language. The department head should have written something like “If you cannot raise my salary by $20,000, I will seek employment elsewhere.” Practice questions Think about the audience, situation, and format. In the following two questions, decide whether the writing or speech is appropriate or inappropriate. Cover letter from a job applicant to a potential employer, a tech start-up: Attached please find my resume, pursuant to your advertisement of July 15th. Tweet from the president to the members of the local garden association: Meeting tonight at 8 p.m. #springplanting Answers to practice questions Inappropriate. Surprised? Job applicants should be formal, but they should also avoid outdated expressions and overly stuffy language, especially for a tech start-up where innovation and rule-breaking are valued. “Attached please find” should be “Attached is.” “Pursuant to” would be better as “in response to.” Appropriate. Tweets may have no more than 280 characters, so the number of spaces, letters, and symbols can't go above that number. Dropping words is fine in this format, as is directing people who are interested in attending the meeting to other tweets about spring planting.

Article / Updated 05-30-2024

In addition to has, have, had, and the be verbs (am, is, are, was, were, and so on), you can attach a few other helpers to a main verb, and in doing so, change the meaning of the sentence slightly. Consider hiring the following helpers: Should and must add a sense of duty. Notice the sense of obligation in these two sentences: “David should put the ice cream away before he eats the whole thing.” “David must reduce his cholesterol, according to his doctor.” Can and could imply ability. Could is the past tense of can. Choose the tense that matches the tense of the main verb or the time period expressed in the sentence, as in these examples, “If Hanna can help, she will.” or “Courtney could stray from the beaten path, depending on the weather.” May and might add possibility to the sentence. Strictly speaking, might is for past events, and may for present, but these days people interchange the two forms: “I may go to the picnic if I can find a bottle of ant-killer.” “I told Courtney that she might want to bring some insect repellent.” Would usually expresses a condition or willingness. This helper explains under what circumstances something may happen. (“I would have brought the cat had I known about the mouse problem.”) Would may also express willingness. (“He would bait the trap.”) Would sometimes communicates repeated past actions. (“Every Saturday he would go to the pet store for more mouse food.”) The present tense of would, the helping verb will, may also indicate a condition in the present or future. (“I will go if I can find a free ticket.”) Practice questions Add a helper to the main verb. The information in parentheses after the fill-in-the-blank sentence explains what meaning the sentence should have. The mayor __________________ make an effort to be more open to the press. (duty) All good reporters __________________ know that if a tree falls or is planted in the forest, the sound is heard by a wide audience only if a radio reporter is there. (duty) Answers to practice questions should. Once you imply duty, should is the helper you want. should. Gotta get that duty in, and should does the job.

Article / Updated 05-30-2024

Three little letters — not — turn a positive comment (“I like your boots”) to a negative one (“I do not like your boots”). Apart from the fashion critique, what do you notice about the negative statement? The verb changes from like to do like. You need that extra part because “I not like” isn’t proper English. Negative verbs don’t always rely on a form of the verb do. Sometimes have, has, or had does the job. Sentences with a be verb can turn negative without any help at all. You can try your hand at not creating the wrong negative verb. Take a look at this example. Rewrite the sentence as a negative expression. Mark's acting received an Academy Award. Mark's acting did not receive an Academy Award. Two things change when the positive verb (received) becomes negative (did not receive). Received, a past-tense form, turned into the basic, no-frills, bare infinitive (receive). The helping verb did pairs with it. As you probably noticed, not is tucked between the two parts of this verb, its usual spot. Practice questions She wanted to be a beekeeper. The bee flying near our picnic table left Sheila alone all afternoon. Answers to practice questions She did not want to be a beekeeper. The past-tense verb form wanted turns to did want. Not completes the negative transformation. The bee flying near our picnic table did not leave Sheila alone all afternoon. The past-tense verb form left changes to did leave, which becomes negative with the addition of not. Were you confused by flying? Although flying expresses action, it isn’t the verb.