Adam Cash

Article / Updated 10-10-2023

Stress is a constant in everyone’s life. Nobody is immune from stress-inducing events and situations. Here are few tips for dealing with stress in your life: Accept responsibility: Take charge of your own part in things instead of focusing on the activities or involvement of others. Analyze the situation logically: Try looking at a situation less emotionally and more logically. Gather information: The more we know, the better we’re able to cope. Find out as much as you can about your situation and what can be done about it. Reappraise or reframe the situation: Look at a situation from a different perspective and try to see the positive side of things. Seek guidance and support: Ask for help from someone you respect or, if you’re more comfortable doing so, from a mental health professional. Use problem-solving skills: Come up with alternatives, select one, try it, and reevaluate the outcomes.

Article / Updated 07-10-2023

Any number of different disciplines are involved in mental illness treatment and working with people with mental disorders. Psychological testing, however, is considered the sole domain of psychologists. Although some professionals, including school counselors and learning disability specialists, conduct psychological testing, their testing is limited in scope and to a specific problem. Psychologists are thoroughly trained in all aspects of psychological testing and are the primary professionals in this area. Testing formats include surveys, pencil-and-paper tests, exercises and activities (like putting a puzzle together), interviews, and observation. Psychological testing focuses on the subject matter of psychology, behavior, and mental processes. Intelligence tests Intelligence tests may be the most frequently administered type of psychological test. They measure a broad range of intellectual and cognitive abilities and often provide a general measure of intelligence, which is sometimes called an IQ — intelligence quotient. Intelligence tests are used in a wide variety of settings and applications. They can be used for diagnostic purposes to identify disabilities and cognitive disorders. They’re commonly used in academic and school settings. Intelligence tests have been around since the beginning of psychology as an established science, dating back to the work of Wilhelm Wundt — one of the founders of psychology — in the early 20th century. The most commonly used tests of intelligence are the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, 4th Edition, for adults, and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, 4th Edition, for children. Each of these tests contains several subtests designed to measure specific aspects of intelligence, such as attention, general knowledge, visual organization, and comprehension. Both tests provide individual scores for each subtest and an overall score representing overall intelligence. Neuropsychological and cognitive tests Although not a new field, tests of neuropsychological functioning and cognitive ability, related specifically to brain functioning, are rapidly becoming a standard part of a psychologist’s testing toolset. Neuropsychological tests have traditionally been used to augment neurological exams and brain imaging techniques (such as MRIs, CT scans, and PET scans) but they’re being used more widely now in psychoeducational testing and other clinical testing situations. The technology of scanning techniques picks up on the presence of brain damage, but neuropsychological tests serve as a more precise measure of the actual functional impairments an individual may suffer from. Scans say, “Yep, there’s damage!” Neuropsychological tests say, “. . . and here’s the cognitive problem related to it.” Neuropsychological testing is used in hospitals, clinics, private practices, and other places where psychologists work with patients who are suspected of neuropsychological impairment. People suffering head trauma, developmental disorder, or other insults to the brain may need a thorough neuropsychological examination. A popular neuropsychological test is a collection of tests called a test battery. The Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery includes tests that measure neuropsychological constructs, such as memory, attention and concentration, language ability, motor skills, auditory skill, and planning. Completing the battery requires several hours, and it’s never done in one sitting. However, when conducted by a competent professional, the testing can yield a tremendous amount of helpful information. Many neuropsychological instruments are available; some are comprehensive, like the Halstead-Reitan, and some are designed to measure a specific function such as language or attention. A neuropsychological evaluation is conducted using a comprehensive instrument or a collection of individual instruments to create a profile of neuropsychological strengths and weaknesses. The following areas of neuropsychological functioning are typically assessed: Executive Functions: Focusing, planning, organizing, monitoring, inhibiting, and self-regulating Communication and Language: Perceiving, receiving, and expressing self with language and nonverbal communication Memory: Auditory memory, visual memory, working memory, and long-term memory Sensorimotor Functions: Sensory and motor functions, including hearing, touch, smell, and fine and gross muscle movements Visual-Spatial Functions: Visual perception, visual motor coordination, visual scanning, and perceptual reasoning Speed and Efficiency: How fast and how efficient thinking is

Article / Updated 07-10-2023

Psychological tests are part of the entire psychological assessment process. Assessment is a set of scientific procedures used to measure and evaluate an individual’s behavior and mental processes. Psychologist Anne Anastasi (1908–2001), a past president of the American Psychological Association, defines a psychological test as an objective, standardized sample of behavior or mental processes. Nearly all topics in psychology can be measured with a test. Clinical tests Clinical psychologists (psychologists who work with mental disorders and abnormal behavior) typically use clinical testing as a way to clarify diagnoses and assess the scope and nature of a person’s or family’s disturbance and dysfunction. Specific tests are designed to assess the extent to which a patient may or may not be experiencing the symptoms of a particular disorder. These are diagnostic tests. Behavioral and adaptive functioning tests are two types of clinical tests that determine how well a person is doing in her everyday life and whether she exhibits specific problem behaviors. A common instrument used with children is the Child Behavior Checklist, which assesses the extent of a child’s behavior problems. Another commonly used clinical test is the Conner’s Parent Rating Scale, which detects attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms. In addition to disorder-specific inventories and tests, a wide variety of tests designed for other purposes lend themselves to the diagnostic process. Intelligence tests are designed to measure intelligence, but they can also show signs of cognitive dysfunction and learning disabilities. Personality tests are designed to measure personality, but they can also provide helpful insight to the types of psychological problems an individual is experiencing. Educational and achievement tests Educational and achievement tests measure an individual’s current level of academic competence. Glen Aylward, chair of the Division of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics at the Southern Illinois University School of Medicine, identifies three major purposes of this type of testing: Identify students who need special instruction. Identify the nature of a student’s difficulties in order to rule out learning disabilities. Assist in educational planning and approach to instruction. A typical educational/achievement test assesses the most common areas of school activity: reading, mathematics, spelling, and writing skills. Some tests include other areas such as science and social studies. A popular achievement test in use today is the Woodcock-Johnson Psychoeducational Battery, Revised. The test consists of nine subtests, measuring the standard areas of instruction but in more detail (mathematics is broken down into calculation and applied problems, for example). When a student has a hard time in school, it’s not unusual to administer an achievement test. Sometimes, students have a difficult time because they have a learning disability. Part of identifying a learning disability is assessing the student’s achievement level. Other times, a student struggles because of non-academic difficulties including emotional problems, substance abuse, or family issues. An achievement test sometimes helps to tease out these non-academic problems. Personality tests Personality tests measure many different things, not just personality. Numerous tests are designed to measure emotion, motivation, and interpersonal skills as well as specific aspects of personality, according to the given theory on which a test is based. Most personality tests are known as self-reports. With self-reports, the person answering questions about herself, typically in a pencil-and-paper format, provides the information. Personality tests are usually developed with a particular theory of personality in mind. A test may measure id, ego, or superego issues, for example, if it originates from a Freudian view of personality development. MMPI-2 Perhaps the most widely used personality test in the United States is the MMPI-2, The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, 2nd Edition. Almost all American psychologists are trained to use the MMPI-2, which is considered to be a very reliable and valid instrument. A patient’s results from a MMPI-2 test provide rich information about the presence of psychopathology and level of severity, if present. The test’s results also reveal information about the emotional, behavioral, and social functioning of the test taker. A lot of psychologists use the MMPI-2 as a way to check the accuracy of their observations and diagnoses. The MMPI-2 test consists of 567 individual items and produces a score on nine clinical categories or scales. If a score is over a specific cutoff, it usually gets the attention of the psychologist administering the test. Psychologists consider such scores to be of clinical significance. The MMPI-2 covers a wide variety of areas, including depression, physical complaints, anger, social contact, anxiety, and energy level. Projective personality tests Projective personality tests are a unique breed of test. When most people think of psychological testing, these kinds of tests come readily to mind. The stereotype involves sitting across from a psychologist, looking at a card with smeared ink or a picture of somebody doing something on it, and answering questions like “What do you see here?” (You can take a free, mock personality test at here.) Projective personality tests are based on the projective hypothesis, which states that when presented with ambiguous stimuli, people project parts of themselves and their psychological functioning that they may not reveal if asked directly The idea is that many people can’t exactly describe what’s going on mentally and emotionally because of psychological defense mechanisms. Projective tests get past the defenses and penetrate the deep recesses of the psyche. Perhaps the most popular projective personality test and maybe even the most popular psychological test of all time is the Rorschach Inkblot Test (RIT). The RIT consists of ten cards, each with its own standard inkblot figure. None of these inkblots are a picture or representation of anything. They were created by simply pouring ink onto a sheet of paper and folding it in half. The only meaning and structure the cards have are provided by the projections of the test taker himself.

Article / Updated 12-28-2021

"Everybody is unique!" is the mantra of the modern era. Many people pride themselves on being different and one of a kind — particularly in Western popular culture and media — and anybody spending any time studying and working with people will tell you there is a great deal of truth to this. Three of the most prominent, salient, and obvious variations among people are differences in culture, gender, and sexuality/sexual orientation. Psychology and culture You live in a truly global society. People are more connected than ever, the world seems smaller, and you can encounter an array of differences at a pace and scale never before seen in history. In the past, you might be lucky if you met someone from a different culture once a month (depending on where you lived). Now, you can meet people from all over the world on the bus, at Starbucks, or online. Psychology as a field would be incomplete without an understanding of how different cultural contexts influence individual minds and behavior. Cross-cultural psychologist John W. Berry at Queen's University in Canada proposes that much of what is known as "psychology" is what he calls "culture bound" and "culture-blind": Culture-bound: Psychology is most popular in Western societies (Europe, the United States, and Canada). As such, it has limited understanding of people outside of those regions — not exactly a universal science considering that the majority of the world's population lives outside of those areas. Culture-blind: The psychology of Europe, the U.S., and Canada has a tendency to largely ignore the influence of culture on the mind and behavior. How do you address these issues? Cross-cultural psychology is the study of how culture influences the mind and behavior. And when referencing "culture," think on a societal level. This can be religious groups, ethnic groups, or even geographic groupings, such as "Californian" — and if you think there aren't different cultures in California compared to New York, just ask a New Yorker. Choosing a view: From the inside or out? Two approaches that a researcher can use to gain insight and information from another culture and its practices are the emic and etic techniques, first developed by K.L. Pike in the 1960s. Emic: The emic method involves approaching a culture different from one's own without preconceived notions as an "outsider" and seeking to understand from the perspective of the "insider" of that culture. An example of an emic approach would be to investigate or collect data on intergroup conflict (for example, rival gangs in Los Angeles) from the perspective of the gang members themselves. This could be done by using a technique called the ethnographic interview, in which the research subject describes his or her experience as openly and freely as possible. An advantage to the emic approach is that it gives very authentic data, specific to a particular culture or group. A disadvantage is that the data or findings might not be applicable beyond that specific situation or group, posing a problem of generalization. Etic: The etic method approaches understanding with all of the preconceived notions and methods of the "outsider." An example of an etic approach would be to investigate or collect data on gang-versus-gang conflict by administering a series of personality tests to individual members that were developed for the general population. An advantage to the etic approach is that findings might be more generalizable; a disadvantage might be that outside bias might influence the interpretation of the findings. It is generally expected that a combined emic and etic approach is the best way to capture the complexities in cross-cultural research. Exploring indigenous psychologies Is there a "Japanese Psychology?" Is there a "Brazilian Psychology?" Is there a "Tamil Psychology?" The short answer is yes. One of the goals of cross-cultural psychology is to look for variations in "other" cultures that are not present in "our own." Not all mental disorders are found in all cultures; or, at the very least, the manifestation of specific disorders varies somewhat or to some degree. The hallucinations of schizophrenics, for example, vary by culture (seeing things versus hearing things, or smelling things). Indigenous psychology also studies culture-bound syndromes — mental disorders that are only recognized and manifest in specific cultures. Here are some of the more interesting ones: Running amok (Malaysian origin): A sudden outburst of aggression or violence and running around wildly. Falling out (African American; Caribbean): Alteration in consciousness including passing out in response to stress. Susto (Mexico, Central America, South America): Displaced soul resulting from trauma. Koro (Asia): A man's sudden grasping of his penis for fear that it will retract into the body. For a women, fear that her nipples may protract. Pibloktog (Arctic and Inuit): Seizure, losing consciousness, amnesia, breaking furniture, eating feces, yelling obscenities. And something can be a norm in one culture that would be considered a disorder in another. For example, grieving in some cultures includes extended periods of mourning, not going out into public, wearing black, not remarrying, and not attending family events. These are expected norms. In Western cultures, this behavior might be diagnosed as depression. Other studies have noted other cross-cultural differences. For example, immigrants to North American from Haiti and Eastern Europe are less trusting of others than Western European Americans and African Americans. Asian Americans show fewer outwards signs of depression than European Americans, who clearly smile less and display more negative emotion when depressed. Looking for universals Are there psychological universals? Cross-culture studies have been conducted in a wide range of areas, such as developmental psychology, cognitive psychology, and psychopathology. Cross-cultural similarities have been found for such phenomena as theory-of mind, counting ability in infants, and mate preferences (in almost all cultures studied, men value attractiveness and chastity more than women do, and women value status and financial prospects). Ultimately, as can be found with many issues in psychology, the "answer" to the human universal versus cultural variability question is that broadly speaking, the components of the mind and human behavior can be thought of as (by varying degrees) both universal and variable across cultures. Psychology and gender Perhaps the most simple and obvious human differences are sex and gender, male or female, masculine or feminine. Nearly all descriptions of other people when we talk about them, tell stories, describe them, or research them include an accounting of sex and gender. Sex refers to an individual's biological status as either male or female, including anatomy. For the most part, you are born with your sex. Gender is not so cut and dry. Gender refers to the behavior and characteristics defining masculinity or femininity, which is understood to be psychologically, socially, and culturally constructed. Gender can be correlated with sex to some degree, but everyone knows people who are sexually male who are feminine in gender and vice versa. Finding a place in the continuum Gender manifests itself psychologically and behaviorally in what psychologists call gender roles. A gender role is a collection of social norms and expectations for a person who identifies or is identified as either masculine or feminine, man or woman. The presence of gender roles in societies gives rise to stereotypes and biases, prejudices, and judgments, of course. However, the world is still very "gendered," and people are still pretty much viewed through the lens of gender role and gender role categories. Psychologist Sandra Bem developed the Bem Sex-Role Inventory as a way to characterize an individual's gender in relation to a scale. Bem's inventory identifies the following as characteristics typically associated with being masculine, feminine, or neutral: Masculine: Acts as a leader, aggressive, ambitious, analytical, assertive, athletic, competitive, defends own beliefs, dominant, and forceful Feminine: Adaptable, affectionate, cheerful, does not use harsh language, gentle to needs of others, soft-spoken, tender, warm, compassionate, and loyal Neutral: Adaptable, conscientious, friendly, helpful, jealous, moody, secretive, solemn, theatrical, and unpredictable There is no value judgment associated with Bem's breakdown. Certainly both masculine and feminine traits are valuable in their own right, and certainly their utility and usefulness will vary by situation and context. Looking at gender differences Gender stereotypes abound. Girls can't do math. Men are uncaring. We know that stereotypes are often a shortcut for critical thought and all too often take us down the wrong road. But consistent differences between men and women have been found in research, such as higher rates of aggression and violence in men, higher rates of substance abuse in men, and higher rates of depression in women. Women's and men's leadership styles vary as well, with women adopting a more democratic and participatory approach and men adopting a more autocratic and directive approach. At one point in history, scientists claimed that women had inferior brains. However, modern neuroscience demonstrates no difference in general intelligence between men and women. Some studies suggest that men perform better at spatial and math abilities while women have stronger verbal abilities, but these findings are so small that they are irrelevant in the real world. So, why are there so few women in science and technology? If it's not biology, then is it culture, family influence, or sexism? The answer to this question has yet to be found. Psychology and sexuality Whom are you sexually attracted to? Sexual attraction is part of what defines a person's sexuality. A person's sexuality consists of his or her Sexual biology (for example, genitals and arousal) Psychosocial functioning (attractions, emotions, and beliefs) Behavior (masturbation and intercourse) Clinical aspects (erectile dysfunction and fetishes) Cultural aspects (prohibitions of premarital sex or gender roles) Laying the building blocks of sexuality The development of sexuality is thought to begin in childhood, or at least the roots of adult sexuality are thought to come from childhood. Infants, toddlers, and young kids Of course, one's sex first becomes evident at birth (or younger if you get a fetal ultrasound), thus marking the early stages of sexuality. A person's sex carries with it biological predispositions (attraction tendencies) and cultural expectations (he's going to be a "ladies' man"). The sexuality development process is just beginning. An infant's closeness with parents (being hugged, cuddled, bathed, and dressed) is a precursor to sexuality and it's possible that disruptions or unhealthy experiences in these interactions can lead to difficulties with sexuality later in life. (These are not seen as "sexual" experiences for an infant but rather precursors to later developed sexuality, as they relate to physical closeness.) As infants grow into "kids," there is a growing awareness and curiosity about their bodies and genitals. It is not unusual to see children "play" with their genitals and engage in "show" games to others. They may even stimulate themselves by rubbing their genitals against toys or other objects. Simultaneously, there is an awareness of parental reactions and attitudes toward the body in general and genitals in particular. These experiences can range from shaming, to embarrassment, to laughter, to acceptance. Keep in mind that an overly negative tone should be avoided. At some point, children inevitably asking how babies are made, and how parents respond to this varies widely. Some give a biologically informed talk, whereas others engage in elaborate fairy tales. It is best not to avoid this discussion because a curious child is bound to find out one way or another; parents should want to be in control of their child's access to that type of information. Crushes and attractions start to emerge and children may even talk about "marrying" or "having a boyfriend" in reference to a class or playmate. Approaching adolescence As children approach adolescence they have a fairly clear understanding of the anatomical differences between boys and girls. Attitudes toward nudity in the home can change as children become more "mature." Kids may engage in "playing house" or "doctor" as a way to explore their sexual arousal, attractions, and bodies. Experimentation may be with either gender. This type of sex play is not generally considered harmful under ordinary and relatively innocent circumstances. However, behavior that appears to be "age-inappropriate" such as overly adult-like actions and adult sexual language use may be a warning sign of possible inappropriate sexual exposure or abuse. Also look for the following warnings that a child may be being sexually abused: Refusal to change for gym or to participate in physical activities Reluctance to be left alone with a particular person or people Sexual knowledge, language, and/or behaviors that are unusual and inappropriate for their age There could be other reasons for these behaviors, but take seriously any suspicion of sexual abuse of children. Puberty and adulthood Puberty marks a significant stage of sexual development. Bodies and physiology go through immense changes. Surveys suggest that the average age of first intercourse is 16 years old for boys and 17 years old for girls. Teen pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases become real concerns as well. These issues remain ongoing into adulthood. Defining healthy sexuality Having a "healthy sex life" is common fodder for daytime talk shows, books and magazines. Defining healthy sexuality is not about moralizing or upholding any particular set of cultural values per se, but is seen as a "health issue" and is defined in terms of a healthy adult relationship in which the rights, well-being, and satisfaction of all involved is central. Deciding what's attractive Every year, people spend billions of dollars trying to make themselves more attractive. And people also want someone "good-looking" to be with. It's not just physical attributes, personality plays a big role in who you are attracted to, as do a host of other attributes such as moral values and career. Where do our attraction preferences come from? Once again, nature and nurture are at play in the development of sexual attraction. From a biological (nature) perspective, sexual attraction is referred to as sexual selection and is understood within an evolutionary context. Sexual attraction is a function of keeping the species alive! But attraction is immensely individualized and heavily culturally influenced. What might make one person attractive to one person and not another is subjective. Research has turned up some features common to both female and male attractiveness, however, such as financial stability, waist-to-hip ratio (curvaceousness) in women, and the "inverted triangle" (shoulders, chest, waist) for men. However, these must not be oversold. Not everyone likes blondes, or curves, or muscles, or . . . you get the idea. Getting your bearings on sexual orientation There is great variety in sexual attraction, but one determinant that plays the biggest role is sexual orientation, defined as an individual's patterns of emotional, romantic, and sexual attractions to men, women, or both sexes. Sexual orientation exists on a continuum with three main orientations: heterosexual (attractions to the opposite sex), gay/lesbian (attractions to the same sex as oneself), and bisexual (attractions to both men and women). Sexual orientation is considered separate from one's biological sex and gender identity. You could be a "feminine" (gender) male (sex) who is attracted to women (heterosexual) or a "masculine" woman attracted to women. The causes of sexual orientation have yet to be firmly discovered through scientific research. It is considered both biologically determined and environmentally shaped. Research shows the relative influence of such variables as genetics, hormones, and cultural influences, but no one factor has been crowned "the cause." Some people have judged that being gay, lesbian, or bisexual is a lifestyle "choice" that a person makes, but many gay men, lesbian women, and bisexual men and women report feeling as if they had "no choice" and simply knew how they felt from an early age. They simply were attracted to whom they were attracted to, period. Until 1973, being gay or lesbian was considered a mental disorder and was diagnosable by psychiatrists with the aim of providing "treatment." Mainstream psychology now considers these sexual orientations as normal variations of human sexuality. These are not disordered people — just people. It is important to note that prejudice and discrimination continue to negatively impact members of the LGBTQ (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgendered) community, and these influences can lead to stress-related difficulties. Rather than viewing these sexual orientations as disorders, psychology has come to focus on helping individuals in the LGBTQ community overcome and cope with discrimination. Psychologists have developed programs focused on helping teens to "come out," especially those in communities that still have a difficult time accepting people who are gay, lesbian, bisexual, or transgendered. Psychologists also explore gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgendered social and identity development. Therapies and therapists claiming to be able to change an individual's sexual orientation (for example, if a man no longer wishes to "be gay") have not been demonstrated to be effective from a scientific perspective. Such "treatments" are considered outside the mainstream, and are not supported by the American Psychological Association.

Article / Updated 09-02-2021

Psychology recognizes the power of love, and how good it feels to be loved and to love someone else. There's even a psychological analysis of it. Elaine Hatfield and Richard Rapson, psychologists at the University of Hawaii, identify two specific types of love: Passionate love: Intense love with a sexual or romantic quality. It’s the kind of love Romeo and Juliet had for each other. It’s the kind of love you don’t have for your grandmother! Companionate love: This is the love between friends and family members. There isn’t much passion here, but there are high levels of attachment, commitment, and intimacy. Sternberg's six forms of love Robert Sternberg, professor of human development at Cornell University, created a theory that outlines six forms of love. Each form is distinguished by varying degrees of: passion, a strong desire for another person, and the expectation that sex with that person will be rewarding; commitment, the conviction that a person will stick around, no matter what happens; and intimacy, the ability to share our deepest and most secret feelings and thoughts with another person. Here are Sternberg’s six forms of love that are based on varying levels of passion, commitment, and intimacy: Liking: There’s intimacy but no passion or commitment here. A relationship with a therapist is a good example of this form of love. You can tell your therapist your thoughts and feelings, but you don’t necessarily feel passion for or commitment to them. Infatuation: Here, there’s passion but no intimacy or commitment. This form of love is like lust. It’s the one-night-stand or seventh-grade crush version of love. Empty love: This is what people have who are committed but share no passion or intimacy. Some married couples are committed to each other out of necessity or convenience and stay together despite the lack of passion or intimacy. Fatuous love: This is the highest level of commitment and passion but it offers low levels of intimacy. Romeo and Juliet seemed to be under the spell of fatuous love. Companionate love: This form of love is being committed and intimate but lacking in passion. It epitomizes a really good friendship. Consummate love: This form is the total package: high passion, strong commitment, and deep intimacy. This one has got to be “consuming.” Are the foundations of love formed in childhood? Some psychologists feel that our love relationships as adults are extensions of our childhood attachments. Children who have healthy attachments have more mature adult relationships with higher levels of intimacy and trust, and they’re comfortable with higher levels of interdependency. Children who experience anxious or ambivalent attachments to their primary caregivers may “fall in love” too easily, seeking extreme closeness right off the bat and reacting intensely to any suggestion of abandonment. Children who avoid social interaction tend to be uncomfortable with closeness and have a tough time with being dependent upon others in their adult relationships. Hatfield and Rappon proposed that people possess love templates in the form of mental schemas or scripts. Templates are formed early in life and are revised and solidified over the years as individuals experience various relationships with other people. These templates shape how a person thinks about relationships and determine what expectations he has upon entering into relationships There are six basic love schemas that apply to romantic relationships. Each schema is differentiated by a person’s comfort level with closeness and independence and how eager they are to be in a romantic relationship. The schemas: Casual: No strings attached. Interested in a problem-free relationship. Dream on! Clingy: Seeks closeness (a little too much) and fears independence. Anybody got a spatula? Fickle: Uneasy with both closeness and independence. Can’t make up your mind? Flip a coin already! Secure: Comfortable with both closeness and independence and doesn’t rush things. Skittish: Fearful of too much closeness and perfectly comfortable with independence. Don’t run! Uninterested: Just not into the whole relationship thing. Everyone has an opinion on each of these love schemas. It’s hard to judge people who may use one type of schema over another. Different schemas seem to apply to different periods of life, but many people strive toward the secure schema. If someone feels that their schema is causing problems in their life, therapy is a good place to work out these issues.

Article / Updated 06-28-2021

Psychologist Sigmund Freud proposed several important defense mechanisms. Keep in mind however that defense mechanisms are not used consciously. A person does not decide to engage in one; rather these happen on an unconscious level: Repression: Keeping a thought, feeling, or memory of an experience out of consciousness. It’s the “forget about it!” approach. Many things may be the objects of repression, including forbidden desires or a painful, emotionally difficult situation. Denial: Refusing to accept that something exists or happened. Denial can also involve altering the meaning of an event so that its impact is diverted. If something important to you goes wrong, you may just say to yourself, “That’s not so important after all.” This is the common “sour grapes” response. Projection: Attributing a threatening urge, impulse, or aspect of oneself to someone else. If you think that the best offense is a good defense, you may use projection a lot. Instead of acknowledging that you’re mad at someone, you may accuse him or her of being mad at you. Rationalization: Creating an acceptable but incorrect explanation of a situation. There once was a thief who only stole from big businesses. He would never think of robbing the Smiths, but super-megastores look out! He explained that big business makes money from “ripping people off,” so he’s just trying to even the score. Unfortunately for him, the judge he faced for his crimes was not a fan of fairy tales. Intellectualization: Thinking about something logically or coldly and without emotion. For example: Therapist: “Mr. Jones, your wife has left you, and you’ve recently lost your job. How does that make you feel?” Patient: “I’ve found that the organization in my home has been much improved, less clutter now; her things took up so much room. As for the job, the economy had been slowing down for some time, I could sense that it was coming.” Reaction formation: Doing the opposite of what you would really like to do. Ever gone out of your way to be nice to someone you really disliked? That’s an example of reaction formation. Regression: Returning to an earlier or more childlike form of defense. Physical and psychological stress may sometimes lead people to abandon their more mature defense mechanisms. If you’ve resorted to whining when asking your boss for a raise, consider it a display of regression.

Article / Updated 06-28-2021

All behavior is learned, whether it’s healthy or abnormal. Behavior therapy is based on one of three learning theories: Ivan Pavlov’s classical conditioning B. F. Skinner’s operant conditioning Albert Bandura’s social learning theory Here’s how these theories understand learning: In the classical-conditioning sense, learning refers to associations formed between events or actions. In the operant-conditioning sense, learning refers to the process of increasing the likelihood of a behavior occurring or not occurring based on its consequences. In the social learning theory sense, learning refers to discovering things by watching other people. And these different kinds of learning can combine to shape behavior. For example, smoking is a good example of an unhealthy behavior that is learned. Cigarette advertisements associate smoking with sexy people and having fun (classical conditioning). Nicotine gives a pleasurable, stimulating sensation (operant conditioning). Teenagers sometimes learn to smoke by watching their parents, older siblings, or peers smoke (social leaning theory). Classical conditioning and behavior therapy Behavior therapy treats abnormal behavior as learned behavior, and anything that’s been learned can be unlearned — theoretically, anyway. A key feature of behavior therapy is the notion that environmental conditions and circumstances can be explored and manipulated to change a person’s behavior without having to dig around their mind or psyche and evoke psychological or mental explanations for their issues. A classic case cited by proponents of behavior therapy to support this approach is the case of Little Hans. Little Hans was a boy who was deathly afraid of horses. Why was Hans afraid of horses? According to psychoanalysis, Hans’s fear of horses was a displaced fear of his powerful father. The behaviorists had a simpler explanation. Hans had recently witnessed a number of extremely frightening events involving horses. On one occasion, he saw a horse die in a carting accident. This event made Hans very upset and fearful. The behaviorists proposed that Hans developed a fear of horses from watching the horse die and witnessing other frightening, horse-related events. He had become classically conditioned to horses and associated fear with horses. Here's how classical conditioning works. Unconditioned Stimulus (Accident) Unconditioned Response (Fear) Conditioned Stimulus (Horse) + Unconditioned Stimulus (Accident) Unconditioned Response (Fear) Conditioned Stimulus (Horse) Conditioned Response (Fear) What do you get? Fear of horses à la classical conditioning. The beauty of this explanation is in its implications for treating Little Hans’s horse phobia. According to behavior therapists, if he learned to be afraid of horses, he could learn how not to be afraid of horses. This type of result can be accomplished with a behavior therapy technique called systematic desensitization. Operant conditioning and behavior therapy What about operant conditioning? Take a look at anger. If you get your way every time you get angry, you’re being positively reinforced for that behavior; therefore, you’re more likely to keep using anger in this way. If a child behaves in a manner that is not acceptable, her parents may be inadvertently reinforcing that behavior by providing attention to her that they may not provide in any other way. An example of a negatively reinforced behavior is seen when an individual gives in to peer pressure. The ridicule a teenager endures for not going along with the crowd can be hurtful. He may give in to peer pressure just to put a stop to the ridicule (the removal of a painful stimulus). Having a difficult time being assertive is an example of a behavior, or the lack of that behavior, that is maintained through punishment. If you live in a home where you’re laughed at or otherwise punished for being assertive and speaking my mind, you’re far less likely to be assertive in other situations. Lacking assertiveness can be a serious problem, and it often leads to feelings of victimization and resentfulness. Behavior that is reinforced is more likely to happen again and again. If your angry outbursts for a sandwich get rewarded with a sandwich, you’re just going to keep on yelling. If you’re punished for speaking your mind, then you’ll keep your thoughts to yourself. Simply put, you get the behavior you reward; you don’t get the behavior you don’t reward (or that you punish). Social learning theory and behavior therapy Humans learn by watching other people. A common problem in marriages is fighting over money. This is sometimes a consequence of watching our parents fight over money, engaging in nonproductive, emotionally hurtful, and frustrating exchanges over who’s to blame for spending too much or not earning enough, for example. Modeling is a form of behavior therapy that is used to teach people new behaviors by showing them how to behave in a healthier way. A therapist may ask one spouse to begin a conversation with them about money, while the other spouse looks on. The therapist can then model, or show, the couple how to discuss money in a healthier manner.

Cheat Sheet / Updated 06-28-2021

The main question that fuels psychology is “Why do people do what they do?” Psychology basically aims to uncover what people do along with why and how they do it. Studying everyday behavior and mental processes is the focus of psychology much of the time. But sometimes the stresses of life can seem overwhelming, and in those cases people need help right away.

Article / Updated 06-25-2021

Psychologist Sigmund Freud’s model of sexual development proposes a series of stages in which people grow and mature. The pleasure sought by your inborn instincts is focused on sexual desire and gratification, through proper stimulation of each erogenous zone. If properly stimulated, you progress to the top of Freud’s psychosexual peak: sexual and psychological maturity. If not, you’re fixated on that particular zone and stuck in that particular stage. Here are the stages by ages: Oral: Birth to 18 months Anal: 18 months to 3 years Phallic: 3 years to 8 years Latency: 7 to 8 years to puberty Genital: Puberty to adulthood Oral Stage The oral stage is Freud’s first stage of personality development. From birth until about 18 months of age, an infant’s life centers on his mouth. The main task of this stage is to satisfy oral desire by stimulating the erogenous zone of the mouth. Infants are born with a very well-developed sense of taste, and their mouths are the most sophisticated tools they have to explore their world. If an infant fails to wean or is weaned harshly or incompletely, he may become fixated at the oral stage. He will develop an oral character in which he’s dominated by feelings of dependency and helplessness. Infants are not able to provide themselves with autonomous satisfaction; as long as they are in the oral stage, they depend entirely on mothers. Anal Stage Freud’s second stage of personality development is all about the erogenous focus of the anal stage. Freud emphasized a person’s control over defecating as the pleasure center from 18 months to 3 years old. The central conflict for toddlers is control! Kids in this stage want the ability to poop whenever they want and wherever they want. Who and what withholds the pleasure of pooping at will? Our parents and the constraints of reality do. In fact, some of your adult characteristics may be the consequence of how your parents handled your toilet training. According to Freud, your creativity and productivity are indicators of how well you’ve successfully navigated the anal stage. If you’re stuck in the anal stage, you’re dominated by anal satisfaction. This satisfaction can come in one of two ways: If you’re messy, sloppy, or careless, it indicates an expulsive rebellion against parental control. If you’re withholding, obstinate, and obsessed with neatness, you’ve learned control in reaction to your toilet-training experience. Phallic Stage Just when you thought that all of your personality traits had been described, Freud comes up with his third stage: the phallic stage. The 3- to 5-year-old child is focused on the erogenous stimulation of the genital area, the penis and vagina specifically. In the phallic stage, gratification begins with masturbation. The need for satisfaction soon turns toward our parents, typically the parent of the opposite sex. As sexual satisfaction expands, a child finds himself within the realm of one of Freud’s most controversial and strange contributions to the study of personality, the Oedipus complex, which essentially states that a male child sees his own mother as a sexual object of desire, causing inevitable conflict with his own father of course. Latency With successful resolution of the conflicts of each previous stage, children enter into a more quiet time of psychosexual development called latency. The libido loosens its grip on the personality, and sexual impulses cease to dominate. Kids find more freedom to explore and expand on the skills they’ve gained from each subsequent stage. Latency lasts from about six years old until puberty. Things cool down, so to speak. There’s no rivalry with the opposite-sex parent. There’s no battle for control over satisfaction. It’s a time for basic social exploration like making friends and forming social cliques. Genital Stage With the onset of puberty, the smooth ride of latency turns turbulent again. The flames of earlier conflicts are rekindled. Desire begins to dominate the picture again in the genital stage, but this time it’s different. The self-centered pleasure-seeking child of earlier stages gives way to a more mature form of satisfaction. A concern for the pleasure of others begins to shape the direction of psychosexual development, and the child is now open to learning how to engage in mutually satisfying love relationships. Freud never proposed that all people reach this point of full maturity. It’s more like an ideal, something to strive for, a lifelong project. But if somebody doesn’t make it (at least some of the way), he can easily drift back into selfish phallicism, which seems to conjure images of the selfish lover who doesn’t care about the pleasure of his partner: as long as he gets what he wants, he’s just fine.

Article / Updated 06-25-2021

Psychologists have been trying to pin down the concept of intelligence for a long time. People differ in their abilities to solve problems, learn, think logically, use language well, understand and acquire concepts, deal with abstractions, integrate ideas, attain goals, and so on. This list of human abilities represents some of the ideas of what intelligence actually is; these abilities are the stuff of intelligence. For a more concrete definition, intelligence can be understood as a collection of cognitive abilities that allows a person to learn from experience, adapt successfully to the world, and go beyond information presented in the environment. Acting intelligently is probably the most grand cognitive process of the human mind. After all, managing information and the various components of attention and remembering things ought to produce something useful, right? You can view intelligence as the collective output of human cognition that results in an ability to achieve goals, adapt, and function in the world. This is intelligent behavior. The factors of intelligence Sure, intelligence is a collection of cognitive abilities, but a unifying construct called “intelligence” that can be measured and quantified must exist, right? Psychologists think so, and they’ve been working tirelessly to test and measure intelligence for a long time. As part of this work, psychologists have developed intelligence tests and worked with militaries, schools, and corporations, trying to sort individual differences in intelligence in the service of job selection, academic honors, and promotions. From all this testing has emerged the concept of “g” as a general and measurable intelligence factor. The g-factor is comprised of subcomponents known as s-factors. Together, the g- and s-factors comprise what is called the two-factor theory of intelligence: g-factor: Some psychologist comes up with a test of mental abilities and gives it to a lot of people. When a score is calculated and averaged across abilities, a general intelligence factor is established. This is factor one of the two-factor theory, commonly referred to as the g-factor, or the general intelligence factor. It is meant to represent how generally intelligent you are, based on your performance on this type of intelligence test. s-factor: The individual scores on each of the specific ability tests represent the s-factors. An s-factor score represents a person’s ability within one particular area. Put all the s-factors together, and you get the g-factor. Commonly measured s-factors of intelligence include memory, attention and concentration, verbal comprehension, vocabulary, spatial skills, and abstract reasoning. So, intelligence according to the psychometric theory is a score on an intelligence test. How can this be? Each test is made up of subtests, and typically, people who score high on one test do well on the other tests, too. This reveals a relationship among the individual abilities as measured by the subtests; the general intelligence concept underlies that relationship. Psychologist and intelligence research pioneer Louis Thurston (1887–1955) came up with a related theory of intelligence called primary mental abilities. It’s basically the same concept as the s-factor part of the two-factor theory, with a little more detail. For Thurston, intelligence is represented by an individual’s different levels of performance in seven areas: verbal comprehension, word fluency, number, memory, space, perceptual speed, and reasoning. Thurston’s work, however, has received very little research support. Cattell-Horn-Carroll Theory of Cognitive Abilities Psychologists continue to divide general intelligence into specific factors. The Cattell-Horn-Carroll Theory of Cognitive Abilities (CHC Theory) proposes that “g” is comprised of multiple cognitive abilities that when taken as a whole produce “g.” The individual contributors to CHC theory (Raymond Cattell, John Horn, and John Carroll) produced a model of general intelligence consisting of ten strata. They are as follows: Crystallized intelligence (Gc): comprehensive and acquired knowledge Fluid intelligence: reason and problem-solving abilities Quantitative reasoning: quantitative and numerical ability Reading and writing ability: reading and writing Short-term memory: immediate memory Long-term storage and retrieval: long-term memory Visual processing: analysis and use of visual information Auditory processing: analysis and use of auditory information Processing speed: thinking fast and automatically Decision and reaction speed: coming to a decision and reacting swiftly Researchers continue to work with the CHC model and have developed research programs looking into adding to the ten strata. Many professionals believe that sensory and motor abilities need to be more fully included in this theory, and researchers are looking at “tentative” factors such as tactile abilities (touch), kinesthetic ability (movement), psychomotor ability and speed, and olfactory ability (sense of smell). Wait a minute, you mean I can be a smart smeller? Only the nose knows! Many intelligence researchers and practitioners have accepted CHC as a triumph of psychological science and the consensus model of psychometric conceptions of intelligence. It is, however, a working model, and many intelligence investigators and theorists consider CHC theory as a strong beginning but not the final word on intelligence. Street smarts American psychologist Robert Sternberg developed the Theory of Successful Intelligence in part to address the street smarts controversy, which holds that many intelligent people may be smart when it comes to academics or the classroom but lack common sense in real life or practical matters. A cultural myth claims that Albert Einstein, unquestionably gifted in mathematics and physics, couldn’t tie his own shoes. I don’t know if this is true or not, but Sternberg seems to agree that an important aspect of being intelligent is possessing a good level of common sense or practical intelligence. The three intelligence components of his theory are as follows: Analytical intelligence: The ability to analyze, evaluate, judge, decide, choose, compare, and contrast. Creative intelligence: The ability to generate unique or creative ways to deal with novel problems. Practical intelligence: The type of intelligence used to solve problems and think about actions of everyday life. Like Einstein tying his shoes, opening up a jar of pickles, how to send a group text, or figuring out how to change your face into an alien with the latest photo filtering app. Multiple intelligences Have you ever wondered what made Michael Jordan such a good basketball player? What about Mozart's musical ability? He wrote entire operas in one sitting without editing. That’s pretty impressive! According to American psychologist Howard Gardener, each of these men display a specific type of intelligence. Gardener generated a theory known as multiple intelligences from observing extremely talented and gifted people. He came up with seven types of intelligence that are typically left out of conventional theories about intelligence: Bodily kinesthetic ability: Michael Jordan seems to possess a lot of this ability. People high in bodily kinesthetic ability have superior hand-eye coordination, a great sense of balance, and a keen understanding of and control over their bodies while engaged in physical activities. Musical ability: If you can tap your foot and clap your hands in unison, then you’ve got a little musical intelligence — a little. People high in musical intelligence possess the natural ability to read, write, and play music exceptionally well. Spatial ability: Have you ever gotten lost in your own backyard? If so, you probably don’t have a very high level of spatial intelligence. This intelligence involves the ability to easily move around in space and to picture three-dimensional scenes in your mind. Linguistic ability: This is the traditional ability to read, write, and speak well. Poets, writers, and articulate speakers are high in this ability. Logical-mathematical ability: This intelligence includes basic and complex mathematical problem-solving ability. Interpersonal ability: The gift of gab and the used-car salesman act are good examples of interpersonal intelligence. A “people person” who has good conversational skills and knows how to interact and relate well with others is high in interpersonal ability. Intrapersonal ability: How well do you know yourself? Intrapersonal intelligence involves the ability to understand your motives, emotions, and other aspects of your personality. Any one of us can have varying degrees of Gardener’s intelligences. I may be one heck of a baseball player and a math whiz, but I may be unable to carry a conversation, get lost walking home from the grocery, and have no idea how I feel about all that. Making the intelligence grade — on a curve Psychologists like to measure stuff, especially stuff related to human behavior and thought processes, like cognitive abilities. Measuring and documenting individual differences is at the core of applied psychological science. Whether you ascribe to CHC, Sternberg’s model, or the concept of multiple intelligences, don’t forget the concept of average. Intelligence is considered to exist in the human population along what is called a normal distribution. A normal distribution is essentially a statistical concept that relates to the ultimate range of any particular trait or psychological phenomenon across a population. Individuals vary in how intelligent they are. A normal distribution (see the following figure) is established by assuming that if the full population took an intelligence test, most people would center around average scores with some variation — from slightly less than average to slightly higher than average. A normal distribution is also referred to as a bell curve because it looks like a bell with a bulky center and flattening right and left ends. Most people are somewhere in the range of average intelligence. Increasingly fewer people are at intelligence levels that are closer to the highest and lowest ends of the spectrum. Normal distribution At the high end of the intelligence curve are people considered intellectually gifted; at the low end are those considered intellectually disabled. Shining bright Einstein was a genius, right? So what exactly is a genius? Psychologists typically refer to super-smart people as intellectually gifted rather than using the term genius. But there is no uniform cutoff score on an intelligence test to determine giftedness. An average standard intelligence score is 100 and, generally speaking, any score above 120 is considered superior. Giftedness is granted to people in the top 1 to 3 percent of the population. That is, out of 100 people, only one, two, or three are considered gifted. Many psychologists are wary of defining giftedness in such numerical and statistical terms and warn that cultural and societal context must be factored in. Could one culture’s genius be another culture’s madman? I’m not sure it’s that dramatic, but it is important to consider that giftedness is multifaceted and not so easily tied to a cutoff score. Numerous attempts have been made to pin down a definition of intellectual giftedness. Robert Sternberg proposed that giftedness is more than superior skills related to information processing and analysis; it also includes superior ability to capitalize on and learn from one’s experiences to quickly solve future problems and automatize problem solving. He proposed that gifted people are especially skilled at adapting to and selecting optimal environments in a way that goes beyond basic information processing and what is considered general intelligence or “g.” Researchers continue to examine the concept of intellectual giftedness, and one consistent finding is that gifted individuals have stronger metacognitive skills, or knowledge of their own mental processes and how to regulate them. These three specific metacognitive strategies are often used by gifted individuals: Selective encoding: Distinguishing between relevant and irrelevant information Selective combination: Pulling together seemingly disparate elements of a problem for a novel solution Selective comparison: Discovering new and nonobvious connections between new and old information In short, think of any of your favorite fictional detectives, like Sherlock Holmes, Miss Marple, or Lieutenant Columbo, and you'll find someone gifted with superior metacognitive skills.