Philosophy Articles

Cheat Sheet / Updated 12-21-2023

Stoicism is an ancient philosophy that has become amazingly popular throughout the world in just the past few years. Philosophy? Popular? Yes, it is amazing. But it’s also true. In business, sports, entertainment, and the military, Stoicism is huge. Stoicism got its start in Athens, Greece around the year 300 BCE. This philosophy migrated to mighty Rome where it flourished as a very popular and highly practical way of living. But like so many once-popular philosophies, it began to wane in its public influence. But throughout the centuries, and especially in times of turbulence and turmoil, it seems that people have rediscovered this ancient body of wisdom, one that’s perfect for periods of disruptive change and uncertainty.

Article / Updated 06-06-2023

Much of Western philosophy finds its basis in the thoughts and teachings of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. You can't begin a study of world philosophy without talking about these guys: the Big Three ancient Greek philosophers. Socrates: Athens' street-corner philosopher Socrates was the big-city philosopher in ancient Athens. Accused and convicted of corrupting the youth, his only real crime was embarrassing and irritating a number of important people. His punishment was death. Famous quote: "The unexamined life is not worth living." Socrates didn't write books; he just liked to ask probing and sometimes humiliating questions, which gave rise to the famous Socratic Method of Teaching. This street-corner philosopher made a career of deflating pompous windbags. Plato: The philosopher who would be king An aristocratic man with plenty of money and a superb physique, Plato at one time won two prizes as a championship wrestler. Actually, the man's real (and little known) name was Aristocles; Plato was just a nickname given to him by his friends, whose original connotation made reference to his broad shoulders. Plato became an enthusiastic and talented student of Socrates and wrote famous dialogues featuring his teacher verbally grappling with opponents. Our wrestler believed in the pre-existence and immortality of the soul, holding that life is nothing more than the imprisonment of the soul in a body. In addition to the physical world, there is a heavenly realm of greater reality consisting in Forms, Ideals, or Ideas (such as Equality, Justice, Humanity, and so on). As his crowning achievement: He wrote a famous treatise (The Republic) on the ideal society, in which he expressed the thought that a philosopher, of all people, should be king (big surprise!). Aristotle: A long walk to the Golden Mean Aristotle was Plato's best student. He went on to become the very well-paid tutor —probably the highest paid philosopher in history — of Alexander the Great. Aristotle started his own philosophical school when he was 50 years old. Although he lived only ten more years, he produced nearly a thousand books and pamphlets, only a few of which have survived. This great thinker was called a peripatetic philosopher (peripateo means "to walk around") because he liked to lecture to his students while taking a walk. Another group of philosophers were called stoics because they preferred sitting around on porches (stoa) when they shot the breeze. A key theme in Aristotle's thought is that happiness is the goal of life. Aristotle was a good deal less other-worldly than Plato. He voluntarily went into exile from Athens when conditions became a bit politically dangerous for him, in his words, "lest Athens sin twice against philosophy." The founder of logical theory, Aristotle believed that the greatest human endeavor is the use of reason in theoretical activity. One of his best known ideas was his conception of The Golden Mean — to "avoid extremes," the counsel of moderation in all things.

Cheat Sheet / Updated 03-14-2022

There is a sense that philosophy is a very long conversation reaching through the centuries (and actually now millennia) about things that deeply matter, hopefully, leading to an understanding of human life and its place in the broader world. This Cheat Sheet provides a quick reference to what philosophy is and how it relates to knowledge, how people perceive themselves, the concepts of good, bad, death, God, and more.

Cheat Sheet / Updated 03-10-2022

No doubt you've heard someone speaking of an "existential crisis." What does that really mean, anyway? Existentialists believe that we're born without purpose into a world that makes no sense — but each person has the ability to create his or her own sense of meaning and peace. Discover who invented this relatively new school of philosophy as well as what concepts define existentialism.

Cheat Sheet / Updated 02-14-2022

Logic is more than a science, it’s a language, and if you’re going to use the language of logic, you need to know the grammar, which includes operators, identities, equivalences, and quantifiers for both sentential and quantifier logic. And, if you’re studying the subject, exam tips can come in handy.

Article / Updated 12-29-2021

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Article / Updated 12-22-2021

With all the restrictions placed upon it, you may think that logic is too narrow to be of much use. But this narrowness is logic's great strength. Logic is like a laser — a tool whose best use is not illumination, but rather focus. A laser may not provide light for your home, but, like logic, its great power resides in its precision. The following sections describe just a few areas in which logic is commonly used. Pick a number (math) Mathematics is tailor made to use logic in all its power. In fact, logic is one of the three theoretical legs that math stands on. (The other two are set theory and number theory, if you're wondering.) Logic and math work so well together because they're both independent from reality and because they're tools that are used to help people make sense of the world. For example, reality may contain three apples or four bananas, but the ideas of three and four are abstractions, even though they're abstractions that most people take for granted. Math is made completely of such abstractions. When these abstractions get complicated — at the level of algebra, calculus, and beyond — logic can be called on to help bring order to their complexities. Mathematical ideas, such as number, sum, fraction, and so on, are clearly defined without exceptions. That's why statements about these ideas are much easier to verify than a statement about reality, such as "people are generally good at heart" or even "all ravens are black." Fly me to the moon (science) Science uses logic to a great advantage. Like math, science uses abstractions to make sense of reality and then applies logic to these abstractions. The sciences attempt to understand reality by: Reducing reality to a set of abstractions, called a model Working within this model to reach a conclusion Applying this conclusion back to reality again Logic is instrumental during the second step, and the conclusions that science attains are, not surprisingly, logical conclusions. This process is most successful when a good correlation exists between the model and reality and when the model lends itself well to the type of calculations that logic handles comfortably. The areas of science that rely most heavily on logic and math are the quantifiable sciences, such as physics, engineering, and chemistry. The qualitative sciences — biology, physiology, and medicine — use logic but with a bit less certainty. Finally, the social sciences — such as psychology, sociology, and economics — are the sciences whose models bear the least direct correlation to reality, which means they tend to rely less on pure logic. Switch on or off (computer science) Medicine used to be called the youngest science, but now that title has been handed over to computer science. A huge part of the success of the computer revolution rests firmly on logic. Every action your computer completes happens because of a complex structure of logical instructions. At the hardware level — the physical structure of the machine — logic is instrumental in the design of complex circuits that make the computer possible. And, at the software level — the programs that make computers useful — computer languages based on logic provide for the endless versatility that sets the computer apart from all other machines. Tell it to the judge (law) As with mathematics, laws exist primarily as sets of definitions: contracts, torts, felonies, intent to cause bodily harm, and so on. These concepts all come into being on paper and then are applied to specific cases and interpreted in the courts. A legal definition provides the basis for a legal argument, which is similar to a logical argument. For example, to demonstrate copyright infringement, a plaintiff may need to show that the defendant published a certain quantity of material under his own name, for monetary or other compensation, when this writing was protected by a preexisting copyright. These criteria are similar to the premises in a logical argument: If the premises are found to be true, the conclusion — that the defendant has committed copyright infringement — must also be true. Find the meaning of life (philosophy) Logic had its birth in philosophy and is often still taught as an offshoot of philosophy rather than math. Aristotle invented logic as a method for comprehending the underlying structure of reason, which he saw as the motor that propelled human attempts to understand the universe in the widest possible terms. As with science, philosophy relies on models of reality to help provide explanations for what we see. Because the models are rarely mathematical, however, philosophy tends to lean more toward rhetorical logic than mathematical logic.

Article / Updated 07-15-2021

Ethics is a central component of any happy, healthy, and mature life. But some critics still question the value of studying ethics and living an ethical life. After all, if you ignore ethics, you can just focus on yourself, right? Not so fast. Some great reasons to resist those critics include the following: Ethics allows you to live an authentic life. An authentic and meaningful life requires you to live with a sense of integrity. Integrity is making commitments and sticking to them through thick and thin — no matter how much violating them may benefit you. Having a firm character or set of principles to guide your life and the choices you make is what ethics is all about. Ethics makes you more successful. You may think that ethics can hold you back in all kinds of ways, but the truth is the opposite. Ethical people embody traits that unethical people have to work at to fake — they’re honest, trustworthy, loyal, and caring. As a result, ethical people are perfectly suited not only for interpersonal relationships generally, but also more specifically for the kinds of interactions that make for thriving business. Unethical people generally don’t do so well at these things. Ethics allows you to cultivate inner peace. Lives that are lived ethically tend to be calmer, more focused, and more productive than those that are lived unethically. Most people can’t turn off their sympathy for other human beings. Hurting people leaves scars on both the giver and the receiver. As a result, unethical people have stormier internal lives because they have to work to suppress their consciences and sympathies to deal with the ways they treat others. When they fail to properly suppress their sympathies, the guilt and shame that comes with harming or disrespecting one’s fellow human beings takes deep root within them. Ethics provides for a stable society. When people live ethical lives, they tell the truth, avoid harming others, and are generous. Working with such people is easy. On the other hand, callous and insensitive people are distrusted, so it’s difficult for them to be integrated well into social arrangements. A stable society requires a lot of ethical people working together in highly coordinated ways. If society were mostly composed of unethical people, it would quickly crumble. Ethics may help out in the afterlife. Some religious traditions believe ethics is the key to something even greater than personal success and social stability: eternal life. No one can be sure about an eternal life, but people of faith from many different religions believe that good behavior in this life leads to rewards in the next life.

Article / Updated 07-15-2021

Studying ethics can help you arrive at clearer positions and arguments on real life issues — and can help you apply them, too. In fact, thinking more about ethical theory may even change your mind about issues in today’s world. Here are some ways you can apply ethics to your life: Consider how you interact with animals. Some folks may think animals don’t ethically matter. However, most ethical theories disagree. So before you abuse a dog, take a bite out of that next steak, or raise cattle inhumanely, you have to consider some ethical arguments. After all, animals feel pain and suffer just like humans. Perhaps this possibility of pain and suffering entitles them to rights and considerations that you’re ethically expected to respect. Be kinder to the environment. People typically see recycling or using certain kinds of household products as neutral lifestyle choices. However, ethics may actually demand a particular sort of interaction with the world around you. Sawing down a tree is innocent enough, but when you think of trees as parts of ecosystems that keep humans alive, things become less clear-cut. Respect and defend human rights. What are the basic things to which humans are entitled just because they’re humans? This question forms the basis of an inquiry into human rights. Ethics has a lot to say about what those rights are, who has them, and why. Many 21st century debates about torture, genocide, women’s rights, free speech, and welfare all focus on human rights Become more ethical in your career. Ethical professionals are better professionals. Lawyers, engineers, doctors, accountants, and journalists must avoid conflicts of interest and be sensitive to the ethical requirements of their jobs. However, keep in mind that being ethical in your profession can lead to surprising results. Lawyers, for instance, have to defend some pretty shady characters in order to give everyone a fair defense. Engage with medical advances. Some of the most contentious ethical problems of today arise in the practice of medicine and with the use of biotechnology. Human cloning, abortion, euthanasia, and genetic engineering challenge long-standing beliefs about human life, identity, and dignity.

Article / Updated 07-15-2021

Ethical theory serves as the foundation for ethical solutions to the difficult situations people encounter in life. In fact, for centuries, philosophers have come up with theoretical ways of telling right from wrong and for giving guidelines about how to live and act ethically. Here are a few ethical theories to whet your appetite: Virtue ethics states that character matters above all else. Living an ethical life, or acting rightly, requires developing and demonstrating the virtues of courage, compassion, wisdom, and temperance. It also requires the avoidance of vices like greed, jealousy, and selfishness. Utilitarianism holds that the amount of happiness and suffering created by a person’s actions is what really matters. Thus, acting rightly involves maximizing the amount of happiness and minimizing the amount of suffering around you. Sometimes you may even need to break some of the traditional moral rules to achieve such an outcome. Kantianism emphasizes the principles behind actions rather than an action’s results. Acting rightly thus requires being motivated by proper universal principles that treat everyone with respect. When you’re motivated by the right principles, you overcome your animal instincts and act ethically. Contract theory proposes thinking about ethics in terms of agreements between people. Doing the right thing means abiding by the agreements that the members of a rational society would choose. So for contract theorists, ethics isn’t necessarily about character, consequences, or principles. Care ethics focuses ethical attention on relationships before other factors. As a result, acting rightly involves building, strengthening, and maintaining strong relationships. Acting rightly thus displays care for others and for the relationships of which they are a part. To care ethicists, relationships are fundamental to ethical thinking.