Linguistics Articles

Cheat Sheet / Updated 03-14-2022

Phonetics is the scientific study of speech sounds. Phoneticians are interested in how people produce and understand speech sounds. Using symbols from the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), phoneticians transcribe the sounds of any languages in the world. Here are some important phonetic terms to help you, all described in plain English.

Cheat Sheet / Updated 02-24-2022

Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. Linguists gather information about sounds and sound patterns, about words and word patterns. They look at how words form sentences and how language is used to communicate. Linguists who focus on the form of language look at phonetics, phonology, morphology, and syntax. Linguists also look at how form changes over time (historical linguistics), compare the languages of the world to each other (language typology), and also compare writing systems (orthography). Many linguists look at how language connects to meaning (semantics and pragmatics), cognition (language acquisition, psycholinguistics, and neurolinguistics), and society (anthropological linguistics and sociolinguistics).

Article / Updated 01-13-2020

Life is full of ki-do-ai-raku (kee-doh-ah-ee-rah-koo; delight-anger-sorrow-fun), and some phrases slip out of our mouths repeatedly such as greetings and responses to different daily situations. Master these common Japanese expressions and use them casually to sound like a native. Yatta (yaht-tah; I did it!) Say yatta when you accomplish something big, receive a great opportunity, or feel victorious. Passing a difficult test, getting the job you wanted, or winning the lottery — these all qualify as yatta material. Hontô (hohn-tohh; Really?) Say hontô to confirm what you've just heard. Suppose your colleague tells you that she's getting married to your boss. Respond to the news by saying hontô. What if your friend says that he'll give his car to you for free? Say hontô before saying thank you. You can say hontô in a lot of situations in your daily life because so many unbelievable things happen every day. Â, sô desu ka (ahh, sohh deh-soo kah; Oh, I see.) Say Â, sô desu ka every time your conversational partner provides a new piece of information. You need to acknowledge each new bit of info by saying, Oh, I see. Be sure to nod as you say this expression. If you talk casually with a Japanese person, you may use this phrase 200 times in one hour. Mochiron (moh-chee-rohn; Of course!) This is the favorite adverb of confident people. Use it when you're 100 percent confident in your opinion. If you were a married man, how would you answer this question, posed to you by your wife: Would you marry me if you had a chance to do it all over again? A word of advice: Don't think about it; just say mochiron to her because you only live once, and you'll never actually be faced with the decision. Â, yokatta (ahh, yoh-kaht-tah; Oh, good.) Say Â, yokatta every time you feel like saying What a relief or Oh, good. If you're Mr. or Ms. Worrier, you may say Â, yokatta ten times a day: Did I turn off the stove? Yes, you did. Â, yokatta. My daughter was kidnapped! No, she's right there behind you. Â, yokatta. Zenzen (zehn-zehn; Not at all.) Zenzen is the phrase of denial. Suppose that someone asks you, "Am I disturbing you?" when they're not bothering you at all. Say zenzen and shake your head. Suppose that your spouse or friend asks whether you understand why he or she is so mad. If you don't have any idea, say zenzen, if you have the courage. Nani (nah-nee; What?) Nani is a question word. It's handy when you talk with a Japanese person. Say nani when you don't hear or understand what the other person said. You can also say nani when you can't believe or don't like what you hear. For example, your fiancée suddenly announces, "I'm getting married to Tom." If your name is Frank, you can surely say nani. That's assuming you have the ability to form words at that point. Dôshiyô (dohh-shee-yohh; What shall I do?) Say dôshiyô when you're in a panic and have no idea what to do. You can repeat it over and over while you try to think of what to do: Dôshiyô, dôshiyô, dôshiyô. Now, you sound like you're in big trouble. What happened? Oh, you've locked your car door with your keys and your coat inside?! Â, bikkurishita (ahh, beek-koo-ree-shee-tah; What a surprise!) Say Â, bikkurishita when you're very surprised. Is your family known for throwing surprise parties? If so, say Â, bikkurishita after they shout out Surprise on your birthday. Yappari (yahp-pah-ree; I knew it would happen.) Sometimes you have a vague suspicion that something will happen, and then it actually happens. At times like that, say yappari. Suppose that you haven't received a newspaper for the last month, but the newspaper delivery person says that he has dropped it off in front of your door every day. One day, you wake up earlier than usual, and you see your neighbor picking up your newspaper. If you had a suspicion that your neighbor was up to something, say yappari.

Article / Updated 01-12-2017

To make sure the information in Phonetics For Dummies is technically correct and as clear as possible, the author reviewed the title again after publication. The errata document clarifies some points and corrects errors that appeared in the first printing, despite the best efforts of the author and publisher. For access to the errata, click here.

Article / Updated 03-26-2016

Many linguists are academics — studying languages for their own sake — but a lot of others work for government organizations, including the military, or for nonprofits documenting and revitalizing languages. Still others work for corporations that use linguistics to solve technical problems. Linguists explore all areas of human language. Some of the major branches of linguistics include: Anthropological linguistics: Looks at how language and culture are connected. Language acquisition: The process by which kids learn a first language or older folks learn a second language. Learning two languages at the same time from childhood is called bilingual language acquisition. Historical linguistics: The study of the origins and evolution of language, especially the study of how languages change over time. Language revitalization: The process of bringing languages that are no longer widely spoken back to life. Linguists don’t revitalize languages on their own, but they work closely with communities who seek to revitalize their languages. Language typology: The study of the systematic patterns that are found in the languages of the world. Morphology: The study of how meaningful parts of words combine with each other. Neurolinguistics: The study of how language is related to brain function. Phonetics: The study of what sounds the speakers of a language use and how they make them. Phonology: The study of how the sounds of a language systematically combine to form patterns. Pragmatics: The study of how language is used in interactive contexts such as conversation, email, and teaching. Semantics: The study of how meaning is expressed through language. Sociolinguistics: The study of how the form of language varies across different social contexts. Speech perception: The process of perceiving speech sounds. Speech production: You got it — the process of producing speech sounds. Syntax: The study of how words and phrases combine to form sentences.

Article / Updated 03-26-2016

If you’re into linguistics, it’s important to be familiar with the founding linguists. Here are some of the big thinkers — and some of their important ideas — from ancient times to today: Pāṇini (around the 5th century BCE): Not to be confused with the Italian word panini ‘sandwich’ — this guy is famous for developing the first comprehensive and scientific theory of grammar. His Sanskrit grammar is the first known attempt to provide a complete description of a language — he logged almost 4,000 rules! But more important than the individual rules was his analysis of how Sanskrit words are formed — Western linguists didn’t catch up with his work until the middle of the 20th century, when Noam Chomsky (check Noam out below) appeared on the scene. Aristotle (3rd century BCE): You may associate Aristotle more with philosophy, but he was also a great linguist! He lived in Greece and thought a lot about how words relate to their meanings. Aristotle developed a system of categories that continues to influence the way linguists approach the question of how language carries meaning. Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913): Credited with establishing modern linguistics, Saussure was one of the founders of structuralism. At a very young age, he applied principles of structural analysis to solve a problem concerning the reconstruction of the Indo-European language family. Saussure's great insight was that the relation between sound and meaning is arbitrary and that all languages are structured in a fundamentally similar fashion. His work had a huge impact on linguists in Europe and North America. Well-known European structuralists included Nikolay Trubetzkoy, Roman Jakobson, Louis Hjelmslev, and André Martinet. Well-known American structuralists included Leonard Bloomfield, Eugene Nida, Bernard Bloch, Charles Hockett, Zellig Harris, Kenneth Pike, and George Trager. Noam Chomsky (1928–…): Although well-known for his political views, Chomsky’s thinking on language has influenced not only linguistics, but also computer science, mathematics, and psychology. One of the most cited living scholars, Chomsky’s best known for the idea that knowledge of language — in particular the productive and creative aspects of language — can be modeled by a formal generative grammar that uses a finite rule system to generate an infinite set of sentences. He also proposed that some aspects of linguistic knowledge are innate — this is called universal grammar.

Article / Updated 03-26-2016

There are about 6,000 human languages currently spoken. You would think that would be enough, but some brave souls feel the need to make up new languages from scratch. These constructed languages are sometimes called conlang and are especially popular in fantasy and science fiction writing and moviemaking. How does linguistics fit into this? Well, language inventors need to know the principles of linguistic analysis to build such languages. Here are some of the more famous ones: Esperanto was invented in the late 1800s by Ludwig Zamenhof to foster harmony between people of different countries. It’s the most widely spoken constructed language in the world and is used in more than 100 countries. Esperanto is based on western Indo-European languages — the sound system is mostly Slavic, the vocabulary is mostly Romance and Germanic. It’s been used as a background language in the movies Gattaca and Red Dwarf, it features in a conversation in Blade: Trinity, and is even used as the main language in the horror movie Incubus. Klingon is the language of the Klingons, used in the Star Trek movie series. The Klingon language was developed by Marc Okrand, a linguist who previously worked with Native American languages. Klingon has a complete grammar and vocabulary — books have been translated into Klingon, and you can select Klingon as your language of choice in Google. Nadsat is a fictional language variety used by teenagers in the novel A Clockwork Orange by Anthony Burgess. It’s a form of Russian-influenced English — the name of the language comes from the Russian suffix -nadstat’ which is the equivalent of English ‘teen’. For example, Nadsat viddy ‘to see’ comes from the Russian vidyet ‘to see’ and Nadsat zoobies ‘teeth’ comes from the Russian zubi ‘teeth’. Newspeak is a form of English used in the novel 1984 by George Orwell. It’s a deliberately simplified language that has no negative words (good is a Newspeak word but not bad), reduces everything to a simple dichotomy between goodthink and ungoodthink, and has a deliberately small vocabulary and short syllables with a staccato rhythm. Examples of Newspeak words are ungood for ‘bad’, plusgood for ‘great’, doubleplusgood for ‘excellent’, doublethink for ‘accepting as correct two mutually contradictory beliefs’, and Ingsoc for ‘English socialism’. (Some aspects of Newspeak are modeled on Esperanto.)

Article / Updated 03-26-2016

The problems posed by linguistics can make you notice really cool things about language. You’ve probably asked yourself these questions without even realizing that they’re linguistic questions. Why is learning a second language so difficult? Why do French and English have so many words in common? Why do dialects exist? Why can’t all the sentences of a language be listed? Why doesn’t everyone speak the same language? Why is it possible to translate from one language to another? Why do some conversations get off-track? Why is it harder to understand someone when you talk on the phone? Why isn’t sign language just a matter of making pictures with your hands? Why are some speech sounds more difficult to produce and perceive than others?

Article / Updated 03-26-2016

You make consonants by completely or partially blocking airflow during speech. You can do this in different ways: you can completely block airflow, push air through a groove or slit to make a hissing sound, block air then make a hiss, or bring the speech articulators (the organs of speech) close together to shape sound. The result is different manners of articulation (different ways of making a sound). You need to be able to label all these processes in order to work with speech in a clinical or educational setting. Here are some key terms for consonant manner of articulation. Affricate: A stop followed by a fricative with the same place of articulation, such as /ʧ/ as in "chip" and /ʤ/ as in "germ." Approximant: A sound made by bringing articulators together to shape airflow, while not blocking air or causing hissing. Examples include "read," "weed," "lead," and "you." Flap: A rapidly made stop consonant, usually voiced, such as the "t" in "Betty" as pronounced in American English Fricative: A hissy consonant, such as in "fat," "vat," "thick," "this," "sip," "zip," "ship," and "leisure". It's made by producing friction in the airstream. Glide: A subgroup of the approximants, also called semivowels, including the sounds /j/ as in "you" and /w/ as in "we". Lateral: Sounds made by directing airflow around the sides of the tongue, such as /l/ in "listen". Liquid: The other two English approximants (besides glides), /l/ and /ɹ/. Nasal: Sounds produced with airflow escaping through the nasal passage, such as in "meat," "neat," and "sing". Stop: Also known as plosive, a sound made with complete closure of the oral cavity.

Article / Updated 03-26-2016

Phoneticians use the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) to distinguish sound substitutions (one speech sound switched for another) from distortion (slurring or mistiming) errors. This information is helpful to pinpoint the level at which a patient is making speech errors. The following terms can assist you in working with individuals with speech and language problems: Aphasia: A language disorder in adults resulting from brain injury or disease in which speaking and listening may be affected. Broca’s aphasia and Wernicke’s aphasia are two common types. Apraxia of Speech (AOS): Also known as verbal apraxia, a condition following brain injury or disease when adults have effortful, dysfluent speech marked by many speech errors. Generally considered a problem with planning and executing speech motor actions (such as putting the lips together and getting the vocal folds ready to make the voiced bilabial stop, /b/). Dysarthria: A group of speech disorders resulting from a disturbance in neuromotor control, resulting in distortion. Affects the clarity of speech and effectiveness of spoken communication. ExtIPA: An extended set of IPA symbols designed for disordered speech. Some symbols, especially diacritics, can also be used for the speech of healthy talkers. Phonemic misperception: A listening problem that occurs when an individual with a communication disorder tries to say a certain speech target but instead makes an improperly timed or poorly coordinated production. As a result, you (the listener) don’t know into which perceptual sound category the production should fall. Sound implementation error: Also known as a phonetic error. It’s the difficulty outputting a selected speech sound. Most frequently associated with Broca’s aphasia and AOS. Sound selection error: Also known as a phonemic error. It’s the difficulty selecting the correct speech sound for speech output. Associated with fluent-type (Wernicke’s) aphasia. VoQS: A set of voice quality symbols useful for describing world languages and also speech pathology conditions, including electrolarynx speech, harsh voice, and so forth.